(OCDE), O. p. C. e. D. (2003). "Mobilizando os Mercados a Serviço da Biodiversidade

Para a Conservação e o Desenvolvimento Sustentável."

Acharya, K. P. (2006). "Linking trees on farms with biodiversity conservation in subsistence farming systems in Nepal." Biodiversity and Conservation 15(2): 631-646.

Adams, D. M., R. J. Alig, et al. (1999). "Minimum Cost Strategies for Sequestrering Carbon in Forests." Land Economics 75(3): 360 - 374.

Adhikari, B., S. Di Falco, et al. (2004). "Household characteristics and forest dependency: evidence from common property forest management in Nepal." Ecological Economics 48(2): 245-257.

Agostinho, A. A., S. M. Thomaz, et al. (2005). "Conservação da biodiversidade em águas continentais do Brasil." Megadiversidade 1: 70-78.

Agrawal, A. and K. Gupta (2005). "Decentralization and Participation: The Governance of Common Pool Resources in Nepal's Terai." World Development 33(7): 1101-1114.

Ahammad, H., K. W. Clements, et al. (2001). "The regional economic impact of reducing greenhouse gas emissions: Western Australia." Resources Policy 27(4): 225-233.

This study analyses the general-equilibrium impacts of an international climate change response policy on the economy of Western Australia (WA), one of the most mining-based and energy-intensive states of Australia. It finds that emissions would fall by up to 11% from the base level in WA. However, such environmental benefits emanate at some costs to the state economy; in terms of foregone gross state product, the costs are up to 3% of the base level. Indeed, the actual costs and benefits depend on the precise design of the climate change response policy as well as on the other policies within which it operates. For example, when emission quota permits are sold to industries and no tradeable carbon credits (i.e. credits for the carbon sequestrated in Kyoto forests) are granted, emissions decline by about 8% and GSP falls by about 3% of the base levels. If carbon credits are tradeable, however, the environmental benefits could be increased and the GSP cost could be reduced substantially. Also, the reduced economic activity caused by emission abatement results in a modest fall in net government revenue, despite the additional revenue from permit sales in some cases. Accordingly, government's fiscal package surrounding the emission permits would influence the emission abatement impacts on the economy. With regard to the effects on the structure of the state economy, the oil and gas industry suffers only a slight contraction but the energy-supplying sector as a whole contracts substantially. It is therefore not surprising that the impacts on the WA economy of curbing emissions by energy and transport industries alone are quite significant when compared to those resulted from all industries' compliance with the abatement scheme. It needs to be noted that the model projections analysed in the paper are based on simplifying assumptions and tentative scenarios, and hence should be viewed with caution and not be understood as unconditional forecasts.

Alauddin, M. and J. Quiggin "Agricultural intensification, irrigation and the environment in South Asia: Issues and policy options." Ecological Economics In Press, Corrected Proof.

Alavalapati, J. R. R., G. A. Stainback, et al. (2002). "Restoration of the longleaf pine ecosystem on private lands in the US South: an ecological economic analysis." Ecological Economics 40(3): 411-419.

Albán, M. and M. Arguello (2004). "The socio-econonmic impacts of Carbon Projects in Ecuador: A case study of PROFAFOR-FACE." IIED Catalogue.

Aldy, J. E., J. Hrubovcak, et al. (1998). "The role of technology in sustaining agriculture and the environment." Ecological Economics 26(1): 81-96.

Alfsen, K. H., M. A. De Franco, et al. (1996). "The cost of soil erosion in Nicaragua." Ecological Economics 16(2): 129-145.

Ali, T., M. Ahmad, et al. (2007). "Impact of participatory forest management on financial assets of rural communities in Northwest Pakistan." Ecological Economics 63(2-3): 588-593.

Alix, J., A. de Janvry, et al. (2003). "Payments for Environmental Services: To whom, where and how much?" INE / CONAFOR / World Bank.

Alliance, C. F. (2001). "National Conservation Finance Strategy Bolivia." Ecosystem Marketplace.

Alliance, C. F. (2003). "Costa Rica: National Conservation Strategy." Ecosystem Marketplace.

Alpar, B., S. Burak, et al. (2005). "Environmental and hydrological management of the Golden Horn Estuary, Istanbul." Journal of Coastal Research 21(4): 646-654.

Altenburg, T., N. K. Agrawal, et al. (2007). "From Project to Policy Reform

Experiences of German Development Cooperation." Deutsches Institut fuer Entwicklungspolitik.

Amaral, P. and M. Amaral Neto (2005). "Manejo Florestal Comunitário: Processos e aprendizagens na Amazônia brasileira e na América Latina."

Amend, M. R., J. Reid, et al. (2006). "Benefícios econômicos locais de áreas protegidas na região de Manaus, Amazonas." Megadiversidade 2: 60-70.

Anderson, C. L., L. Locker, et al. (2002). "Microcredit, Social Capital, and Common Pool Resources." World Development 30(1): 95-105.

Anderson, J., C. Benjamin, et al. (2006). "Forests, poverty and equity in Africa: new perspectives on policy and practice." International Forestry Review 8(1): 44-53.

Anderson, J. R. (1999). "Poverty, Land degradation, and rural research policy." CIAT International Workshop.

Anderson, J. R. (2003). "Risk in rural development: challenges for managers and policy makers." Agricultural Systems 75(2-3): 161-197.

Anderson, P. J. and F. E. Putz (2002). "Harvesting and conservation: are both possible for the palm, Iriartea deltoidea?" Forest Ecology and Management 170(1-3): 271-283.

We consider the mechanism of certification to encourage sustainable harvesting and best management practices of Iriartea deltoidea Ruiz and Pavon, in the context of current land use and agricultural management in Amazonian Ecuador. Interviews and observations with harvesters, storeowners, and furniture-makers provided information about current and potential markets for goods made from the palm. To understand the demographic variables that are critical for population stability, data from five plots in each of three different forest types (mature, secondary, and dissected) were collected. Matrix models were used to develop harvesting simulations through which biological constraints on sustainable harvesting were explored. These simulations suggest that sparing individuals 5-15 m tall when pastures are cleared and adding this palm to current agroforestry polycultures can improve the likelihood of sustainable harvesting for this species. Results showed that harvesting Iriartea could fit within current land use. Some forest colonists clear pastures to graze cattle, while others devote land to agriculture, including polycultures of annuals and perennials. In either case, palms can be left standing when forests are cleared. Swidden agriculture (slash and burn or slash and mulch) depends on a fallow period during which secondary forest may begin to regenerate. These secondary forests are ideal locations for extraction of forest products that fit within the cycle of fallow regeneration in areas near human settlements. Sparing Iriartea individuals 5-15 m tall could benefit agriculture, encourage the sustainability of future harvests, and help ensure the future of this palm as a part of the Amazonian landscape. Interviews with staff of governmental and non-governmental conservation organizations investigated the policy context for certification as a mechanism for conservation. Establishing guidelines for harvesting requires input from all stakeholders in the decision, not simply an ecological analysis. Such guidelines for certifying good management practices, if they are developed, should include provisions for monitoring unanticipated consequences of harvesting or changes in future environmental conditions. Transportation issues and stem drying processes need to be addressed if efforts to expand markets are to succeed. More generally, guidelines for management of forest resources can be improved by combining ecological and social research perspectives; the potential for carrying out such guidelines can be improved by incorporating the knowledge of local forest dwellers and NGOs.

Angelsen, A. and S. Wunder (2003). "Exploring the Forest - Poverty Link: Key Concepts, Issues and Research Implications."

Antinori, C. and D. B. Bray (2005). "Community forest enterprises as entrepreneurial Firms: Economic and institutional perspectives from Mexico." World Development 33(9): 1529-1543.

Anuradha, R. V. (1998). "Sharing with the Kanis; A case study from India." Ecosystem Marketplace.

Appleton, A. F. (2002). "How New York City Used an Ecosystem Services Strategy Carried out Through an Urban-Rural Partnership to Preserve the Pristine Quality of Its Drinking Water and Save Billions of Dollars." Ecosystem Marketplace.

Arambiza, E. and M. Painter (2006). "Biodiversity conservation and the quality of life of indigenous people in the Bolivian Chaco." Human Organization 65(1): 20-34.

Aretino, B., P. Holland, et al. (2001). "Creating Markets for Biodiversity: A Case Study of Earth Sanctuaries Ltd." Productivity Comission.

Arifin, B. (2005). "Institutional Constraints and Opportunities in Developing Environmental Service Markets: Lessons from Institutional Studies on Rupes in Indonesia." World Agroforestry Centre 2005.

Arnalds, O. and B. H. Barkarson (2003). "Soil erosion and land use policy in Iceland in relation to sheep grazing and government subsidies." Environmental Science & Policy 6(1): 105-113.

Arocena-Francisco, H. (2003). "Environmental Service "Payments": Experiences, Constraints and Potential in the Philippines." Ecosystem Marketplace.

Aune, K., B. G. Jonsson, et al. (2005). "Isolation and edge effects among woodland key habitats in Sweden: Is forest policy promoting fragmentation?" Biological Conservation 124(1): 89-95.

Babiker, M., J. Reilly, et al. (2004). "Is international emissions trading always beneficial?" Energy Journal 25(2): 33-56.

Babu, S. and P. Pinstrup-Andersen (2000). "Achieving food security in Central Asia -- current challenges and policy research needs." Food Policy 25(6): 629-635.

Badgley, C. (2003). "The farmer as conservationist." American Journal of Alternative Agriculture 18(4): 206-212.

Bailey, N., J. T. Lee, et al. (2006). "Maximising the natural capital benefits of habitat creation: Spatially targeting native woodland using GIS." Landscape and Urban Planning 75(3-4): 227-243.

Balasubramanian, V., M. Sie, et al. (2007). Increasing Rice Production in Sub[hyphen (true graphic)]Saharan Africa: Challenges and Opportunities. Advances in Agronomy, Academic Press. Volume 94: 55-133.

Bank, T. W. (2000). "Property Rights, Collective Action and Technologies for Natural Resource Managment " Natural Resource Managment Briefing Note.

Baranyani, S., C. D. Deere, et al. (2004). "Land & Development in Latin America

Openings for Policy Research."

Barnes, J. I., J. Macgregor, et al. (2002). "Economic Efficiency and Incentives for Change within Namibia's Community Wildlife Use Initiatives." World Development 30(4): 667-681.

Barrantes, R., D. Burneo, et al. (2005). "La política forestal en la Amazonía andina." CIES Publication (Consorcio de Investigación económica y social).

Barrett, C. B., D. R. Lee, et al. (2005). "Institutional Arrangements for Rural Poverty Reduction and Resource Conservation." World Development 33(2): 193-197.

Bass, S. and OECD (2005). "Environmental Fiscal Reform for Poverty Reduction." OECD-Document.

Bawa, K. S., G. Joseph, et al. (2007). "Poverty, biodiversity and institutions in forest-agriculture ecotones in the Western Ghats and Eastern Himalaya ranges of India." Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 121(3): 287-295.

Bayon, R. (2001). "Innovating Environmental Finance." Milken Institute.

Bayon, R., C. Deere, et al. (1999). "Environmental Funds: Lessons Learned and Future Prospects."

Bayon, R., S. J. Lovink, et al. (2000). "Financing Biodiversity Conservation."

Bazzani, G. M., S. Di Pasquale, et al. (2005). "The sustainability of irrigated agricultural systems under the Water Framework Directive: first results." Environmental Modelling & Software 20(2): 165-175.

Bekalo, S. and C. Bangay (2002). "Towards effective environmental education in Ethiopia: problems and prospects in responding to the environment--poverty challenge." International Journal of Educational Development 22(1): 35-46.

Belli, P., J. R. Anderson, et al. (2001). "Economic Analysis of Investment Operations

Analytical Tools and Practical Applications." The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / THE WORLD BANK.

Benitez, P. C., T. Kuosmanen, et al. (2006). "Conservation Payments under Risk: A Stochastic Dominance Approach." American Agricultural Economics Association 88(1): 1-15.

Benskin, H. J. and A. Vyse (2002). "British Columbia Forest Service's Science Program: Science to support sustainability." Forestry Chronicle 78(1): 72-73.

Berdegué, J. A. and G. Escobar (2000). "Seguimiento y Evaluación del Manjo de Recursos Naturales."

Berger, G., H. Kaechele, et al. (2006). "The greening of the European common agricultural policy by linking the European-wide obligation of set-aside with voluntary agri-environmental measures on a regional scale." Environmental Science & Policy 9(6): 509-524.

Berger, G., H. Pfeffer, et al. (2003). "Nature protection in agricultural landscapes by setting aside unproductive areas and ecotones within arable fields ("Infield Nature Protection Spots")." Journal for Nature Conservation 11(3): 221-233.

Bernardo, R. and R. D. Estrada (1998). "Model for the Empowerment of a Local Communtiy by Policy Criteria Trade-Off Analysis " CONDESAN Gray Literature.

Bertoldi, P. and T. Huld (2006). "Tradable certificates for renewable electricity and energy savings." Energy Policy 34(2): 212-222.

Tradable green certificates (TGCs) schemes have been developed and tested in several European countries to foster market-driven penetration of renewables. These certificates guarantee that a specific volume of electricity is generated from renewable-energy source (RES). More recently certificates (tradable white certificates (TWCs)) for the electricity saved by demand-side energy-efficiency measures (EEMs) have been introduced in some European countries. Recent advances in information and communication technology have opened up new possibilities for improving energy efficiency and increasing utilization of RESs. Use of technological resources such as the Internet and smart metering can permit real-time issuing and trading of TGCs. These technologies could also permit issuing of TWC. This paper reviews current renewable TGC and TWCs schemes in Europe and describes the possibilities for combining them in an Internet-based system. In the proposed combined tradable certificate scheme, both RESs and demand-side EEMs could bid in real time through the Internet to meet a specific obligation. The energy savings from the demand-side measures would be equivalent to the same amount of green electricity production. The paper describes the needed common targets and obligations, the certificate trading rules and the possible monitoring protocol. In particular, the paper focuses on the TWCs verification issues, including the assessment of the baseline, as these poses additional problems for TWCs compared to TGCs.

Bienabe, E. and R. R. Hearne (2006). "Public preferences for biodiversity conservation and scenic beauty within a framework of environmental services payments." Forest Policy and Economics 9(4): 335-348.

Bjorheden, R. (2006). "Drivers behind the development of forest energy in Sweden." Biomass and Bioenergy 30(4): 289-295.

Bjorklund, J., K. E. Limburg, et al. (1999). "Impact of production intensity on the ability of the agricultural landscape to generate ecosystem services: an example from Sweden." Ecological Economics 29(2): 269-291.

Blignaut, J. and C. Moolman (2006). "Quantifying the potential of restored natural capital to alleviate poverty and help conserve nature: A case study from South Africa." Journal for Nature Conservation 14(3-4): 237-248.

Blum, N. "Environmental education in Costa Rica: Building a framework for sustainable development?" International Journal of Educational Development In Press, Corrected Proof.

Bocco, G., A. Velazquez, et al. (2005). "Using geomorphologic mapping to strengthen natural resource management in developing countries. The case of rural indigenous communities in Michoacan, Mexico." Catena 60(3): 239-253.

Boellstorff, D. and G. Benito (2005). "Impacts of set-aside policy on the risk of soil erosion in central Spain." Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 107(2-3): 231-243.

Boemare, C. and P. Quirion (2002). "Implementing greenhouse gas trading in Europe: lessons from economic literature and international experiences." Ecological Economics 43(2-3): 213-230.

The European Commission (document COM (2001) 581) has recently presented a directive proposal to the European Parliament and Council in order to implement a greenhouse gas emission trading scheme. If this proposal survives the policy process, it will create the most ambitious trading system ever implemented. However, the legislative process is an opportunity for various interest groups to amend environmental policies, which as a result generally deviate further from what economic literature proposes. A close look at implemented emission trading schemes, stressing their discrepancies with economic literature requests, is thus useful to increase the chances of forthcoming emission trading schemes to go through the political process. We thus review ten emission trading systems, which are either implemented or at an advanced stage of the policy process. We draw attention to major points to be aware of when designing an emission trading system: sectoral and spatial coverage, permits allocation, temporal flexibility, trading organisation, monitoring, enforcement, compliance, and the harmonisation vs. subsidiarity issue. The aim is to evaluate how far experiences in emission trading move away from theory and why. We then provide some lessons and recommendations on how to implement a greenhouse gas emission trading program in Europe. We identify some pros of the Commission proposal (spatial and sectoral coverage, temporal flexibility, trading organisation, compliance rules), some potential drawbacks (allocation rules, monitoring and enforcement) and items on which further guidance is needed (monitoring and allocation rules). Lastly, the European Commission should devote prominent attention to the US NOX Ozone Transport Commission budget program, as the only example of integration between the federal and state levels.

Boerner, J., M. Denich, et al. (2007). "Alternatives to slash-and-burn in forest-based fallow systems of the eastern Brazilian Amazon region: Technology and policy options to halt ecological degradation and improve rural welfare." 335 - 363.

Borges, S. H., S. Iwanaga, et al. (2007). "Uma análise geopolítica do atual sistema de unidades de conservação na Amazônia Brasileira." Política Ambiental 4: 1-42.

Borner, J., A. Mendoza, et al. "Ecosystem services, agriculture, and rural poverty in the Eastern Brazilian Amazon: Interrelationships and policy prescriptions." Ecological Economics In Press, Corrected Proof.

Bosch, D. J. and J. W. Pease (2000). "Economic Risk and Water Quality Protection in Agriculture." Review of Agricultural Economics 22(2): 438-463.

Boyd, J. and R. D. Simpson (1999). "Economics and biodiversity conservation options: an argument for continued experimentation and measured expectations." The Science of The Total Environment 240(1-3): 91-105.

Bracer, C., S. J. Scherr, et al. (2007). "Organization and Governance for Fostering Pro-Poor Compensation for Environmental Services." World Agroforestry Centre 2007.

Brandon, K. E. and M. Wells (1992). "Planning for people and parks: Design dilemmas." World Development 20(4): 557-570.

Integrated Conservation-Development Projects (ICDPs) attempt to link biodiversity conservation in protected areas with social and economic development in surrounding communities. The performance of ICDPs thus far has been hampered by numerous difficulties, many of which are strikingly similar to those encountered in rural development efforts. While many of these difficulties can be traced to specific design or implementation flaws, more fundamental conceptual issues pose a challenge for the approach. This paper highlights the evolution and performance of these projects thus far, and the conceptual tradeoffs inherent in linking conservation and development.

Bray, D. B. (2005). "Managing the commons: Markets, Commodity chains and Certification. Thematic Introduction. Can Common property regimes alleviate poverty? Markets and their absence in the common property literature."

Bray, D. B., J. L. P. Sanchez, et al. (2002). "Social dimensions of organic coffee production in Mexico: Lessons for eco-labeling initiatives." Society & Natural Resources 15(5): 429-446.

Bromley, D. (1997?). "Environmental Problems in Southeast Asia: Property Regimes as Cause and Solution."

Bruneau, J. F. (2005). "Inefficient environmental instruments and the gains from trade." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 49(3): 536-546.

The primary result from the trade and environment literature is that countries never lose from trade liberalization as long as they implement optimal pollution targets or if they hold emissions constant. These results are derived in models where the regulators use efficient instruments such as tradable permits or emission taxes. Regulators, however, continue to prefer command and control instruments. I show that regulation under these inefficient instruments (such as design standards or concentration standards) can lead to net losses under trade liberalization even if emissions are optimally adjusted for trade. Furthermore, holding the line on emissions need not guarantee welfare improvements either. The problem is that institutional distortions, the excess costs of inefficient instruments, can rise with trade and offset the material gains from trade. Hence the presumption that we can achieve gains from trade by considering only the level of emissions fails to recognize that the mode of regulation also matters.

Budhathoki, P. (2004). "Linking communities with conservation in developing countries: buffer zone management initiatives in Nepal." Oryx 38(3): 334-341.

Buergin, R. (2003). "Shifting frames for local people and forests in a global heritage: the Thung Yai Naresuan Wildlife Sanctuary in the context of Thailand's globalization and modernization." Geoforum 34(3): 375-393.

Cairns, R. D. and P. Lasserre (2006). "Implementing carbon credits for forests based on green accounting." Ecological Economics 56(4): 610-621.

This paper presents a carbon-accounting method for forests that is implementable in the sense that it makes use of observable information. The valuation of the effects of carbon dioxide is based on asset values rather than rental values. With minor differences due to the treatment of such accidents as fires and pestilence, the method corresponds to the flow method of the physical carbon-accounting literature. The stock-change method of carbon accounting, however, is incompatible with economic principles. Rather than set carbon values to their optimal levels in the Pigovian tradition we use current societal standards. We also present a discussion of how to implement the scheme in the face of uncertainty.

Camacho, A., O. Segura, et al. (2000). "Pago por Servicios Ambientales en Costa Rica."

Campos, M., M. Francis, et al. (2005). "Stronger by association: Improving the understanding of how forest-resource based SME associations in Brazil can benefit the poor." IIED Catalogue.

Canali, G. (2006). "Common agricultural policy reform and its effects on sheep and goat market and rare breeds conservation." Small Ruminant Research 62(3): 207-213.

Carabias Lillo, J., E. Provencio, et al. (1997). "Economia Amiental: Lecciones de América Latina."

Carlsson, F. and H. Hammar (2002). "Incentive-based regulation of CO2 emissions from international aviation." Journal of Air Transport Management 8(6): 365-372.

Carpenter, A. I., O. Robson, et al. (2005). "The impacts of international and national governance changes on a traded resource: a case study of Madagascar and its chameleon trade." Biological Conservation 123(3): 279-287.

Carter, J. and J. Gronow (2005). "Recent Experience in Collaborative Forest Managment."

Carvalho, G., P. Moutinho, et al. (2004). "An Amazon Perspective on the Forest-Climate Connection: Opportunity for Climate Mitigation, Conservation and Development?" Environment, Development and Sustainability 6: 163 - 174.

Cassimon, D. and J. Vaessen (2007). "Theory, practice and potential of debt for development swaps in the Asian and Pacific region." Economic Systems 31(1): 12-34.

Castella, J.-C., S. P. Kam, et al. (2001). "New partnership mechanisms for integrated natural resource managment: the Red River Basin (Vietnam) pilot region for operational ecoregional approach." International Journal of Sustainable Development 4(4): 351-367.

Castro, E. (2004). "Pago por servicios ambientales (PSA) en cuencas cafetaleras: Valorando económica y ecológicamente la dinámica e integralidad de los agroecosistemas."

Catacutan, D. and C. Duque (2006). "Challenges and opportunities in managing Phillipine Watersheds: The case of Manupali watershed in the southern Philippines." World Agroforestry Centre 2006.

Cernea, M. M. and K. Schmidt-Soltau (2006). "Poverty risks and national parks: Policy issues in conservation and resettlement." World Development 34(10): 1808-1830.

CGIAR, I. (2000). "Equity, Well-being, and Ecosystem Health

Participatory Research for Natural Resource Managment." IDRC Library.

Chagoya Fuentes, J. L. (2004). "Investment analysis of incorporating timber trees in Livestock farms in the sub-humid tropics of Costa Rica."

Chakraborty, R. N. (2001). "Stability and outcomes of common property institutions in forestry: evidence from the Terai region of Nepal." Ecological Economics 36(2): 341-353.

Chambers, P. E., R. Jensen, et al. (1996). "Debt-for-nature swaps as noncooperative outcomes." Ecological Economics 19(2): 135-146.

Recently, nongovernmental organizations have engaged in debt-for-nature swaps in an effort to slow the rate of deforestation. The purpose of this paper is to provide analysis of the welfare properties that arise to self-enforcing swaps. We show that swaps may be self-enforcing in that they can arise as noncooperative equilibria at high harvest and debt levels. Under these conditions, a credit constrained LDC is likely to reduce harvest levels. Similarly if the NGO views preservation projects as complements, it is likely to provide debt relief. We provide simulations to demonstrate the effects of different parametric values for the utility functions of the LDC and NGO on the noncooperative and cooperative equilibria.

Charnley, S. (2006). "The Northwest Forest Plan as a Model for Broad-Scale Ecosystem Managment:a Social Perspective." Conservation Biology 20: 330-340.

Chomitz, K. M., E. Brenes, et al. (1999). "Financing environmental services: the Costa Rican experience and its implications." The Science of The Total Environment 240(1-3): 157-169.

Chomitz, K. M., P. Buys, et al. (2007). "Visão geral - Em desacordo? Expansão Agricola, Redução da Pobreza e Meio Ambiente nas Florestas Tropicais."

Cline, S. A. and A. R. Collins (2003). "Watershed associations in West Virginia: Their impact on environmental protection." Journal of Environmental Management 67(4): 373-383.

Cocklin, C., N. Mautner, et al. "Public policy, private landholders: Perspectives on policy mechanisms for sustainable land management." Journal of Environmental Management In Press, Corrected Proof.

Cohen, S. M. (2002). "Carbon-based conservation strategies in Latin America: An innovative tool for financing environmental conservation." Geneva Papers on Risk and Insurance-Issues and Practice 27(2): 255-267.

Cohn, D. (2005). "Xunan kab, the stingless bees of the Yucatan: Preserving meliponiculture in Mayan communities - Part one of two parts." American Bee Journal 145(8): 656-660.

Cohn, D. (2005). "Xunan kab, the stingless bees of the Yucatan: Preserving meliponiculture in Mayan communities - Part two of two parts." American Bee Journal 145(9): 724-728.

Colby, B. G. (2000). "Cap-and-trade policy challenges: A tale of three markets." Land Economics 76(4): 638-658.

Collion, M.-H. and P. Rondot (2001). "Investing in rural producer organizations - contributing to sustainable agricultural production." The World Bank 1.

Conroy, C., A. Mishra, et al. (2002). "Learning from self-initiated community forest management in Orissa, India." Forest Policy and Economics 4(3): 227-237.

Corbera, E., N. Kosoy, et al. (2007). "Equity implications of marketing ecosystem services in protected areas and rural communities: Case studies from Meso-America." Global Environmental Change 17(3-4): 365-380.

Corbet, S. A. (1995). "Insects, plants and succession: advantages of long-term set-aside." Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 53(3): 201-217.

Cowell, S. and C. Williams (2006). "Conservation through buyer-diversity: A key role for not-for-profit land-holding organizations in Australia " Ecological Managment & Restoration 7: 5-20.

Crane, W. (2006). "Biodiversity conservation and land rights in South Africa: Whither the farm dwellers?" Geoforum 37(6): 1035-1045.

Cuéllar, N., H. Rosa, et al. (1999). "Los servicios ambientales del agro: El caso del café de sombra en El Salvador." Prisma Programa Salvadoreño de Investigación sobre Desarrollo y Medio Ambiente 34.

Cullen JR, L., K. Alger, et al. (2005). "Land Reform and Biodiversity Conservation in Brazil in the 1990s: Conflict and the Articulation of Mutual Interests." Conservation Biology 19: 747-755.

Cullen JR, L., K. Alger, et al. (2005). "Reforma agrária e conservação da biodiversidade no Brasil nos anos 90: conflitos e articulações de interesses comuns." Megadiversidade 1: 198-207.

Cullen, L., K. Alger, et al. (2005). "Land reform and biodiversity conservation in Brazil in the 1990s: Conflict and the articulation of mutual interests." Conservation Biology 19(3): 747-755.

Cumming, G. S. and B. J. Spiesman (2006). "Regional problems need integrated solutions: Pest management and conservation biology in agroecosystems." Biological Conservation 131(4): 533-543.

Ecosystems produce goods and services that are essential for the wellbeing of humans and other organisms. The earth's expanding human population is altering both pattern and process in ecosystems, and hence is impacting the provision of ecosystem goods and services at a variety of scales. Food production and other ecosystem services, such as the many benefits provided by forests, are not exclusive of one another at a regional scale. Although it is becoming obvious that uncoordinated local management is inadequate to address regional ecosystem changes in the face of regional drivers of change, few regional governments have addressed the need for holistic landscape management of regional ecosystem services. We compare and contrast two regional programs, the agricultural agenda of integrated pest management (IPM) and an as-yet hypothetical, fragmentation-oriented conservation agenda that we term `Regional Fragmentation Management' (RFM). IPM has a strong practical foundation but is weak on theory. RFM has a stronger theoretical base, but is weak on practice and has mainly focused on protected areas. Both programs address only a small subset of the larger question of how to effectively maintain regional production of regional ecosystem services. Some of the successes of IPM practitioners in building institutions and achieving societal acceptance for their program, particularly in relation to regionally coordinated (`areawide') pest management, suggest that regional ecosystem management is plausible. IPM offers some ingredients of an institutional role model for a broader, more ambitious program that seeks to manage regional ecosystem services and processes in a sustainable manner. As the looming crisis of global climate change brings a potential window of opportunity for the introduction of novel approaches for managing deforestation, closer synergies between conservation and agriculture at regional scales seem not only possible, but essential.

Curtis, D. (2003). "The arts and restoration: a fertile partnership?" Ecological Managment & Restoration 4: 163-169.

Da Riva, A. L. M., L. F. Laranja Da Fonseca, et al. (2007). "Instrumentos Econômicos e Financeiros para Conservação e Recuperação de Ecossistemas Naturais em Propriedades Rurais no Estado de Mato Grosso."

Daily, G. C. (2000). "Managment objectives for the protection of ecosystem services." Environmental Science & Policy 3: 333 - 339.

Damodaran, A. (2002). "Conflict of Trade-Facilitating Environmental Regulations with Biodiversity Concerns: The Case of Coffee-Farming Units in India." World Development 30(7): 1123-1135.

Das, G. G., J. R. R. Alavalapati, et al. (2005). "Regional impacts of environmental regulations and technical change in the US forestry sector: a multiregional CGE analysis." Forest Policy and Economics 7(1): 25-38.

In this paper, a multiregional computable general equilibrium model, which divides the United States (US) into four broad geographical regions and aggregates other nations into the rest of the world, is used to analyze the effects associated with environmental and technological policy shifts in the US forest sector. In particular, we analyze the impacts of: (i) a 20% reduction in the harvest of timber in the Pacific Northwest relative to other regions; (ii) a 5% increase in the cost of timber production in the US South relative to other regions due to environmental regulations; and (iii) a 2% Total Factor Productivity (TFP) improvement in the South and 1% TFP improvement in the other three US regions. The results show that a 20% reduction in timber harvest induces a shift in regional production and visible gains in welfare, especially in the US South. Furthermore, higher technical progress in the South as compared to the other three regions contributes to an overall increase in forest products' output and welfare in the US and the rest of the world. On the contrary, an increase in the cost of production in the US South, in response to additional environmental regulations, is shown to reduce welfare for the US and globally. Results of this analysis help forest companies and landowners make production decisions and guide policy makers toward developing appropriate policies to further forest conservation and economic development in the US.

Das, G. G., J. R. R. Alavalapati, et al. (2005). "Regional impacts of environmental regulations and technical change in the US forestry sector: a multiregional CGE analysis." Forest Policy and Economics 7(1): 25-38.

Davis, S. H. and A. Wali (1993). "Indigenous Territories and Tropical Forest Managment in Latin America." Policy Research Working Papers 1100.

de Koning, G. H. J., P. C. Benitez, et al. "Modelling the impacts of payments for biodiversity conservation on regional land-use patterns." Landscape and Urban Planning In Press, Corrected Proof.

De Oliveira Costa, P. (2004). "Resposta Político - Econômica às Mudanças Climáticas: Origens, Situação Atual e Incertezas do Mercado de Créditos de Carbono."

de Snoo, G. R. and G. W. J. van de Ven (1999). "Environmental themes on ecolabels." Landscape and Urban Planning 46(1-3): 179-184.

A desk study on current market-oriented approaches promoting more sustainable agriculture compared organic farming (EKO), agro-ecolabelling (AMK), `environmentally-aware cultivation' (MBT), Albert Heijn's controlled cultivation, Sainsbury's integrated crop management and the TNO label developed for the retailer A&P. The contribution of these to individual Dutch environmental policy themes was analysed. The results of an inventory for arable farming are presented, with special reference to the cultivation of ware potatoes. They show that all the labels include the themes of climate change, acidification, eutrophication and ecotoxicity. The themes of hydrological changes and habitat loss and fragmentation are scarcely taken into account in the Dutch labels. This implies that these labels do not guarantee that sustainable agriculture will be developed. However, the British retailer Sainsbury's does consider all the six topics explicitly. Although both the environment and biodiversity will benefit from a reduction of pollutant emissions, the labels do not assess the actual effect of the criteria, as there is no analytical framework for transforming the present ecolabels into manageable and effective instruments to achieve sustainable agriculture. Several criteria are proposed for use in market-oriented tools aiming to enhance biodiversity.

Deacon, R. T. and P. Murphy (1997). "The structure of an environmental Transaction: the Debt for Nature Swap." Land Econonmics 73: 1-24.

Deutsch, L., C. Folke, et al. (2003). "The critical natural capital of ecosystem performance as insurance for human well-being." Ecological Economics 44(2-3): 205-217.

Development, P. o. I. L. M. U. N. C. o. S. a. T. f. (1997). "Science, Technology and Integrated Land Managment."

D'Haeze, D., J. Deckers, et al. (2005). "Environmental and socio-economic impacts of institutional reforms on the agricultural sector of Vietnam: Land suitability assessment for Robusta coffee in the Dak Gan region." Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 105(1-2): 59-76.

Dias Figueiredo, L., N. Porro, et al. (2006). "Associations in emergent communities at the Amazon forest frontier, Mato Grosso." IIED Catalogue.

Dietschi, S., R. Holderegger, et al. (2007). "Agri-environment incentive payments and plant species richness under different management intensities in mountain meadows of Switzerland." Acta Oecologica 31(2): 216-222.

Dissart, J. C., L. Baker, et al. (2000). "The economics of erosion and sustainable practices: The case of the Saint-Esprit watershed." Canadian Journal of Agricultural Economics-Revue Canadienne D Agroeconomie 48(2): 103-122.

Dobbs, T. L. and J. Pretty "Case study of agri-environmental payments: The United Kingdom." Ecological Economics In Press, Corrected Proof.

Dolisca, F., D. R. Carter, et al. (2006). "Factors influencing farmers' participation in forestry management programs: A case study from Haiti." Forest Ecology and Management 236(2-3): 324-331.

Donald, P. F., G. Pisano, et al. (2002). "The Common Agricultural Policy, EU enlargement and the conservation of Europe's farmland birds." Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 89(3): 167-182.

Donaldson, A. B., G. Flichman, et al. (1995). "Integrating agronomic and economic models for policy analysis at the farm level: The impact of CAP reform in two European regions." Agricultural Systems 48(2): 163-178.

Donovan, J., D. Stoian, et al. (2006). "The business side of sustainable forest managment: Small and medium forest enterprise development for poverty reduction." Overseas Development Institute (ODI), Natural Resource Perspectives 104.

Driver, M. and I. Davidson (2002). "Deposit for the Future: Remnant vegetation managment through community cost-sharing."

Ducourtieux, O., J. R. Laffort, et al. (2005). "Land policy and farming practices in laos." Development and Change 36(3): 499-526.

Dudgeon, D. (2003). "The contribution of scientific information to the conservation and management of freshwater biodiversity in tropical Asia." Hydrobiologia 500(1-3): 295-314.

Duff, D. A. (1993). "Conservation Partnerships for Coldwater Fisheries Habitat." Journal of the North American Benthological Society 12(2): 206-210.

Duncan, E. (2006). "Payments for Environmental Services

An equitable approach for reducing poverty and conserving nature." WWF.

Durst, P., P. J. McKenzie, et al. (2006). "Challenges facing certification and eco-labelling of forest products in developing countries." International Forestry Review 8(2): 193-200.

Dustin Becker, C. (2003). "Grassroots to Grassroots: Why Forest Preservation was Rapid at Loma Alta, Ecuador." World Development 31(1): 163-176.

Dutschke, M. and A. Michaelowa (1997). "Joint Implementaion as Development Policy - The Case of Costa Rica." HWWA - Diskussionspapier Nr. 49.

Dye, P. and D. Versfeld "Managing the hydrological impacts of South African plantation forests: An overview." Forest Ecology and Management In Press, Corrected Proof.

South Africa is poorly endowed with natural forests, and is heavily dependent on plantations of exotic forestry species to meet its timber needs. The first forest plantations of exotic trees were established in South Africa in 1875. Since then, there has been a steady growth in the total area of forest plantation, culminating in the approximately 1.5 million hectares that are today spread over the higher-rainfall eastern and southern regions of the country. Concerns over the effects of these forest plantations on streamflows and catchment water yields arose as far back as 1915, and were thoroughly debated during the Empire Forestry Conference that took place in South Africa in 1935. A decision taken at this conference led to the establishment of a network of long-term paired catchment experiments in various catchments located in the major forestry areas of South Africa. Since the mid 1980s, these experiments have been supplemented by a wide variety of process studies, where transpiration or evapotranspiration in particular have been directly measured above forest, grassland and other vegetation types, using heat pulse and micrometeorological techniques. Information from all these studies has been used to calibrate catchment hydrological models that have provided estimates of the hydrological impacts of forest plantations in all quaternary catchments in which some degree of afforestation has taken place. Outputs from such studies have been simplified and tabulated to permit planning authorities to predict the likely hydrological impacts of afforestation in any given catchment, and to limit the spread of further afforestation in catchments where available water resources are fully or over-committed. This paper reviews the present South African forest water use situation, and in particular the attitude towards new afforestation, outlining the requirements of the National Water Act that was passed in 1998. Recent efforts to implement an integrated water resource management system that meets the requirements of this Act are described, as are the new institutional arrangements in the process of being implemented. The concept of streamflow reduction activities is presented, and the process by which the national Department of Water Affairs and Forestry currently regulates plantation forestry in the context of all forms of land and water use, is described. Additional aspects of the new system, such as the protection of an ecological reserve (to maintain aquatic systems and ensure supply for basic human needs), water pricing and trading, Compulsory Licensing and the need for equity in the allocation of water resources are highlighted, as well as some of the difficulties hindering implementation efforts.

Eastmond, A. and B. Faust (2006). "Farmers, fires, and forests: a green alternative to shifting cultivation for conservation of the Maya forest?" Landscape and Urban Planning 74(3-4): 267-284.

Echavarria, M., J. Vogel, et al. (2004). "The impacts of payments for watershed services in Ecuador." IIED Catalogue.

Edmonds, C. M. (1999). "The effect of technology transfer program participation on small farms in Chile." CIAT International Workshop.

Ehrlich, P. R., G. Wolff, et al. (1999). "Knowledge and the environment." Ecological Economics 30: 267 - 284.

Ellison, K. (2005). "The Ecosystem Marketplace."

Ellison, K. and G. C. Daily (2003). "Making Conservation Profitable

".

El-Swaify, S. A. (1997). "Factors affecting soil erosion hazards and conservation needs for tropical steeplands." Soil Technology 11(1): 3-16.

Emerson, H. J. and D. A. Gillmor (1999). "The Rural Environment Protection Scheme of the Republic of Ireland." Land Use Policy 16(4): 235-245.

Erenstein, O. (2003). "Smallholder conservation farming in the tropics and sub-tropics: a guide to the development and dissemination of mulching with crop residues and cover crops." Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 100(1): 17-37.

Eriksson, L. O., O. Sallnas, et al. (2007). "Forest certification and Swedish wood supply." Forest Policy and Economics 9(5): 452-463.

A number of measures have been introduced into Swedish forestry in order to satisfy demands on biodiversity and sustainability. Protection measures include set asides, areas with continuous cover forestry and retention trees on harvesting sites, to name but a few. Most of these practices will have implications for the total wood supply of the Swedish forests. In 1998, the Swedish standard for forest certification according to the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) was approved. The standard adopts many detailed regulations regarding how forests should be managed. The aim of this study is to assess the likely effect of FSC certification on short- and long-term supply of roundwood in Sweden. A scenario, expressed as the distribution of the forest land base on production forests, areas with restrictions for management and reserves, is input into a simulation model in which forest owners are assumed to be guided by economic criteria when deciding on management. Four scenarios were created based on the data of the Swedish National Forest Inventory. For each scenario the short-term wood supply was assessed. Also, a number of long run simulations with different relative price levels are presented. The results indicate that full adoption of the FSC standard on the entire land base, compared with adherence only to the Forestry Act, could result in a substantial reduction in supply, or, conversely, could induce a price increase in case supplied quantities should be maintained at current levels. This is under the assumption that no compensating mechanisms, exogenous to the model, come into effect. Furthermore, a sustained price increase that would compensate for lost volumes today does not seem to prevail in the long run. In conclusion, the ongoing adaptation of Swedish forestry to the standards of the certification programs could have substantial effects on the timber supply and will probably influence the international competitiveness of the Swedish forest sector. Effects and tendencies like these should form integral parts of future analyses of wood balances and wood supply in a regional perspective.

Espach, R. (2006). "When is sustainable forestry sustainable? The Forest Stewardship Council in Argentina and Brazil." Global Environmental Politics 6(2): 55-+.

Espinoza, N., J. Gatica, et al. (1999). "El Pago de Servicios Ambientales y el Desarrollo Sostenible en el Medio Rural."

Everard, M. (2004). "Investing in sustainable catchments." Science of the Total Environment 324(1-3): 1-24.

Eyre, C., J. Mundy, et al. (1999). "Risk Mitigation in Forestry: Linkages with Kyoto and Sustainable Forestry." Forest Trends.

Farrington, J. and J. Mitchell (2006). "How can the rural poor participate in global econonmic processes?" Overseas Development Institute (ODI), Natural Resource Perspectives 103.

Fearnside, P. M. (1997). "Environmental services as a strategy for sustainable development in rural Amazonia." Ecological Economics 20(1): 53-70.

Fearnside, P. M. (1999). "Forests and global warming mitigation in Brazil: opportunities in the Brazilian forest sector for responses to global warming under the "clean development mechanism"." Biomass and Bioenergy 16(3): 171-189.

The Kyoto Protocol created global warming response opportunities through the clean development mechanism that allow countries like Brazil to receive investments from companies and governments wishing to offset their emissions of greenhouse gases. Brazil has a special place in strategies for combating global warming because its vast areas of tropical forest represent a potentially large source of emissions if deforested. A number of issues need to be settled to properly assign credit for carbon in the types of options presented by the Brazilian forest sector. These include definition of the units of carbon (permanent sequestration versus carbon-ton-years, the latter being most appropriate for forest options), the means of crediting forest reserve establishment, adoption of discounting or other time-preference weighting for carbon, definition of the accounting method (avoided emissions versus stock maintenance), and mechanisms to allow program contributions to be counted, rather than restricting consideration to free-standing projects. Silvicultural plantations offer opportunities for carbon benefits, but these depend heavily on the end use of the products. Plantations for charcoal have the greatest carbon benefits, but have high social impacts in the Brazilian context. Plantations also inherently compete with deforestation reduction options for funds. Forest management has been proposed as a global warming response option, but the assignment of any value to time makes this unattractive in terms of carbon benefits. However, reduced-impact logging can substantially reduce emissions over those from traditional logging practices. Slowing deforestation is the major opportunity offered by Brazil. Slowing deforestation will require understanding its causes and creating functional models capable of generating land-use change scenarios with and without different policy changes and other activities. Brazil already has a number of programs designed to slow deforestation, but the continued rapid loss of forest highlights the vast gulf that exists between the magnitude of the problem and the efforts to address it. The ups and downs of Brazil's deforestation rate have so far had little to do with deliberate programs to control or influence the process. Achieving this control will require a major effort in which contributions from the private sector will be needed. Mechanisms are needed to make contributions to such programs eligible for carbon credit.

Fearnside, P. M. (2003). "Conservation policy in Brazilian Amazonia: Understanding the dilemmas." World Development 31(5): 757-779.

Fearnside, P. M. (2005). "Deforestation in Brazilian Amazonia: History, Rates, and Consequences." Conservation Biology 19: 680-688.

Feldpausch, T. R., S. Jirka, et al. (2005). "When big trees fall: Damage and carbon export by reduced impact logging in southern Amazonia." Forest Ecology and Management 219(2-3): 199-215.

We examined carbon export in whole logs and carbon accumulation as coarse woody debris (CWD) produced from forest damage during all phases of the first and second year of a certified reduced impact logging (RIL) timber harvest in southern Amazonia. Our measurements included a 100% survey of roads and log decks, assessment of canopy damage and ground disturbance in skid trails and tree-fall gaps, and measurement of carbon exported from the site in logs. Log deck and road construction crushed one and five trees in the 10-60 cm diameter at breast height (DBH) class per hectare logged, disturbed areas of 24 and 100 m2 ha-1, respectively, and together disturbed about 1% of the forest. On average 1.1-2.6 trees ha-1 were harvested over the two years. Logged gaps constituted the greatest disturbance on an area basis (4-10% of the forest) and CWD generation (1.9-4.4 Mg ha-1 logged). In gaps, felled trees severed or crushed 10 trees >=10 cm DBH per tree logged, which corresponded to 1.7 Mg ha-1 of CWD per tree logged. Crown height - measured from the first bifurcation to the top of the crown - rather than tree height was the better predictor of gap size formed from tree felling (R2 = 0.41). Logging activities significantly reduced leaf area in roads, log decks and gaps, with the greatest reduction (48%) in log decks and least in logged gaps and roads (28-33%) compared to undisturbed forest. A total of 37 species were harvested, with 36% of the total trees harvested and 48% of the total carbon exported from the site in three of the most common species. Logging damage produced 4.9-8.8 Mg C ha-1 logged of CWD from all phases of the operation. Carbon export in whole logs (2.1-3.7 Mg C ha-1 logged) represented 1-3% of the total standing forest carbon >=10 cm DBH (138 Mg C ha-1). The mean carbon ratio (per hectare logged) of C in CWD to C exported in logs was 2.4. The disturbance, damage, carbon export and CWD data we present advances understanding of the effect of selective logging on tropical forest dynamics of the Amazon Basin. Our results indicate that certified timber harvest in Amazonia under RIL is a viable forest management option to reduce damage and CWD production compared to conventional logging (CL) practices; however, the benefits of disturbance reduction from RIL relative to CL are only realized at greater volumes of timber extraction.

Ferraro, P. J. (2001). "Global habitat protection: Limitations of development interventions and a role for conservation performance payments." Conservation Biology 15(4): 990-1000.

Ferraro, P. J., T. Uchida, et al. (2005). "Price premiums for eco-friendly commodities: Are 'Green' markets the best way to protect endangered ecosystems?" Environmental & Resource Economics 32(3): 419-438.

Ferroukhi, L. (2003). "Municipal Forest Managment in Latin America."

Firbank, L. G., S. M. Smart, et al. (2003). "Agronomic and ecological costs and benefits of set-aside in England." Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 95(1): 73-85.

Fischer, C. (2006). "Multinational taxation and international emissions trading." Resource and Energy Economics 28(2): 139-159.

Many studies have shown that the activities of multinational corporations are quite sensitive to differences in income tax rates across countries. In this paper I explore the interaction between multinational taxation and abatement activities under an international emissions permit trading scheme. Four types of plans are considered: (1) a single domestic permit system with international offsets; (2) separate national permit systems without trade; (3) separate national permit systems with limited offsets; and (4) an international permit trading system. For each plan, I model the incentives for the multinational firm to choose abatement activities at home and abroad and to transfer emissions credits between parent and subsidiary. Limits on trading across countries restrict efficiency gains from abatement, as is well known. But if available offset opportunities are limited to actual abatement activities, those activities are also more susceptible to distortions from incentives to shift taxable income. Transfer-pricing rules can limit but not always eliminate these distortions. In a system of unlimited international trading, abatement is efficiently allocated across countries, but tax shifting can still be achieved through intra-firm transfer pricing. From the basis of efficiency for both environmental and tax policies, the best design is an international permit trading system with transparent, enforceable transfer-pricing rules.

Fisher, M. and G. Shively (2005). "Can Income Programs Reduce Tropical Forest Pressure? Income Shocks and Forest Use in Malawi." World Development 33(7): 1115-1128.

Summary Seasonal household data from Malawi are used to study links between income shocks and forest use. A Tobit model is estimated to examine whether household forest use responds to receipt of a positive income shock (delivered as a technology assistance package), and the characteristics of households reliant on forests for shock coping. Results show households experiencing an income boost had lower forest extraction compared to households that did not receive such a shock, ceteris paribus. We find households most dependent on forests for natural insurance are those located near woodlands and headed by an individual who is relatively young and male.

Fisher-Vanden, K. A., P. R. Shukla, et al. (1997). "Carbon taxes and India." Energy Economics 19(3): 289-325.

Using the Indian module of the Second Generation Model (SGM), we explore a reference case and three scenarios in which greenhouse gas emissions were controlled. Two alternative policy instruments (carbon taxes and tradable permits) were analyzed to determine comparative costs of stabilizing emissions at (1) 1990 levels (the 1X case), (2) two times the 1990 levels (the 2X case), and (3) three times the 1990 levels (the 3X case). The analysis takes into account India's rapidly growing population and the abundance of coal and biomass relative to other fuels. We also explore the impacts of a global tradable permits market to stabilize global carbon emissions on the Indian economy under the following two emissions allowance allocation methods. 1. 1. Grandfathered emissions: emissions allowances are allocated based on 1990 emissions. 2. 2. Equal per capita emissions: emissions allowances are allocated based on share of global population. Tradable permits represent a lower-cost method to stabilize Indian emissions than carbon taxes, i.e. global action would benefit India more than independent actions.

forestal, C. n. (2001). "Programa estratégico forestal para México 2025."

Freibauer, A., M. D. A. Rounsevell, et al. (2004). "Carbon sequestration in the agricultural soils of Europe." Geoderma 122(1): 1-23.

Frickmann Young, C. E. (2005). "Financial Mechanisms for Conservation in Brazil." Conservation Biology 19: 756-761.

Fridleifsson, I. B. (2001). "Geothermal energy for the benefit of the people." Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews 5(3): 299-312.

Frost, P. and I. Bond (2006). "Campfire and payments for environmental services." IIED Catalogue.

Frost, P., B. Campbell, et al. (2006). "Landscape-scale approaches for integrated natural resource management in tropical forest landscapes." Ecology and Society 11(2).

Fullen, M. A. (2003). "Soil erosion and conservation in northern Europe." Progress in Physical Geography 27(3): 331-358.

Gammage, S. (1997). "Estimating the returns to mangrove conversion: sustainable managment or short term gain?" Environmental economics programme, Discussion Paper DP 97-02.

Garay Rodríguez, M. E. (2004). "Impacto socioeconómico del Pago de servicios ambientales y la Certificación forestal voluntaria como mecanismos que promueven la sostenibilidad del manajo forestal en Costa Rica."

Garcia Martinez, M. and F. Banados (2004). "Impact of EU organic product certification legislation on Chile organic exports." Food Policy 29(1): 1-14.

Empirical studies have underlined the importance of technical trade barriers in the agricultural sector. For organic food products, national differences in standards and certification systems could act as a major non-tariff barrier for exporting countries, particularly developing countries, which could eventually fail to benefit from the increasing market opportunities for organic products in developed countries. This paper presents the results of a study on the impact of EU organic certification legislation on Chile organic exports where the lack of an equivalent system forces Chilean organic exports to enter the EU through the `back door', that is, through special import permits, with the resulting increase in transaction costs as products accepted in one EU country may not be accepted in another. The paper reports also on the recent legislative developments to establish a national certification system in Chile for organic products and the problems encountered to make it operational.

Gatzweiler, F. W. (2006). "Organizing a public ecosystem service economy for sustaining biodiversity." Ecological Economics 59(3): 296-304.

The core question this paper attempts to address is how social organization needs to respond to biodiversity features and functions in order to achieve its sustainable use. Scholars have suggested that the governance of complex systems should be dispersed across multiple centers of authority and that any regulative system needs as much variety in the actions that it can take as exists in the system it is regulating. Further, it has been argued that complex ecosystems and biodiversity can successfully be maintained by complex, polycentric, multi-layered governance systems which have a variety of response mechanisms. But how should polycentric governance of biodiversity be organized? Borrowing from the organization of public economies in metropolitan areas we distinguish between production and provision of public ecosystem services and suggest the direction of institutional change for the organization of a public ecosystem service economy. If the market alone cannot solve the allocation of public ecosystem services, economic efficiency criteria based on hypothetical markets are not sufficient. Therefore, we suggest design principles which go beyond economic efficiency and provide examples of the emergence of polycentric governance from an Ethiopian coffee forest conservation project.

Gentes, I. (2006). "Compensation for environmental services and public policies in indigenous and peasant communities of the andean countries: New methodologies and strategies for a countrywide dialodue." Rev. geogr. Norte Gd. 35: 29 - 44.

Ghani, A. N. A. and M. S. H. Othman (2003). "Forest Pricing in Malaysia."

Gielen, D., J. Fujino, et al. (2003). "Modeling of global biomass policies." Biomass and Bioenergy 25(2): 177-195.

This paper discusses the BEAP model and its use for the analysis of biomass policies for CO2 emission reduction. The model considers competing land use, trade and leakage effects, and competing emission reduction strategies. Two policy scenarios are presented. In case of a 2040 time horizon the results suggest that a combination of afforestation and limited use of biomass for energy and materials constitutes the most attractive set of strategies. In case of a `continued Kyoto' scenario including afforestation permit trade, the results suggest 5.1 Gt emission reduction based on land use change in 2020, two thirds of the total emission reduction by then. In case of global emission reduction, land use, land use change and forestry (LULUCF) accounts for one quarter of the emission reduction. However these results depend on the modeling time horizon. In case of a broader time horizon, maximized biomass production is more attractive than LULUCF. This result can be interpreted as a warning against a market based trading scheme for LULUCF credits. The model results suggest that the bioenergy market is dominated by transportation fuels and heating, and to a lesser extent feedstocks. Bioelectricity does not gain a significant market share in case competing CO2-free electricity options such as CO2 capture and sequestration and nuclear are considered. To some extent trade in agricultural food products such as beef and cereals will be affected by CO2 policies.

Glastra, R. (1999). "Cut and Run

Illegal Logging and Timber Trade in the Tropics."

Glover, D. (1997). "Research Issues in Environmental Tax Reform."

Gobbi, J. A. (2000). "Is biodiversity-friendly coffee financially viable? An analysis of five different coffee production systems in western El Salvador." Ecological Economics 33(2): 267-281.

Goldstein, J. H., G. C. Daily, et al. (2006). "Business strategies for conservation on private lands: Koa forestry as a case study." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103(26): 10140-10145.

Gomez Tovar, L., L. Martin, et al. (2005). "Certified organic agriculture in Mexico: Market connections and certification practices in large and small producers." Journal of Rural Studies 21(4): 461-474.

Gong, Y. (2004). "Distribution of benefits and costs among stakeholders of a protected area: an empiripal study from China."

González Vicente, C. E. (2003). "Programa stratégico forestal para Tlaxcala 2025."

Gossling, S. (1999). "Ecotourism: a means to safeguard biodiversity and ecosystem functions?" Ecological Economics 29(2): 303-320.

Gottinger, H. W. (1998). "Greenhouse Gas Economics and Computable General Equilibrium." Journal of Policy Modeling 20(5): 537-580.

This paper employs a new class of computable general-equilibrium (CGE) models, developed in the context of energy-economy-environmental models to simulate the impacts of the EU economy of internal and multilateral instruments for regulation of greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions. Climate change due to emissions gases of greenhouse gases is a long-term global environmental problem. While specific impacts on different regions as well as their timing are yet uncertain, it is reasonable to suppose that unilateral voluntary action by individual countries to reduce their net emissions of GHGs is unlikely. This is because significant reduction of net GHGs emissions by a single major net emitter, say, for example the EU, is unlikely to substantially slow down the rate of increase in concentration in the atmosphere because the emissions of GHGs worldwide is increasing rapidly with spreading industrialization. On the other hand, unilateral changes in energy use patterns are widely perceived to have adverse effects on a country's economic growth, consumer welfare and trade competitiveness. This perception is shared by both developing (DCs) and industrialized countries (INCs). Some major policy instruments have been assessed on the basis of experiments with the CGE model. The use of each of the policy instrument for direct GHGs regulation is promising. The results of the above experiments seem to show, that first, emission standards accomplish significant decreases in net GHGs emissions with negligible relative GDP and Welfare index changes and without major distributional impacts in the sense of relative changes in factor rewards. They seem to work through major reduction in coal and natural gas use and slight overall reduction in the use of petroleum. Second, auctioned tradeable permits also accomplish large decreases in net GHGs emissions, with, however a perceptible increase in the Welfare Index and significant distributional impacts in higher rewards to land owners and labor relative to capital owners. They appear to work primarily by expansion to the forest sector and associated increases offsets generation. Third, the use of a GHGs tax on positive net emissions of GHGs by industries accomplishes large reductions in net GHGs emissions with significant increase in GDP and the Welfare Index. The relative changes in factor rewards are also important and favor land owners over labor and capital owners. This instrument too appears to work primarily through considerable expansion of the forest sector and consequent increases offsets generation. Each of these instruments show sufficient promise as effective policy tools for GHGs reduction, that it would be advisable to conduct further research in each case. The choice between standards on the one hand, and market-based domestic regulatory instruments on the other, is not straightforward. These results need verification through further analysis.

Gouldin, C. J. (2006). "Forest stewardship council certification of industrial plantation forests." Allgemeine Forst Und Jagdzeitung 177(3-4): 42-47.

Gray, G. J., M. J. Enzer, et al. (2001). "Understanding community-based forest ecosystem managment." Journal of sustainable Forestry 12 an 13.

Greiner, R. and A. Lankester (2007). "Supporting on-farm biodiversity conservation through debt-for-conservation swaps: Concept and critique." Land Use Policy 24(2): 458-471.

Grieg-Gran, M. (2000). "Fiscal Incentives for Biodiversity Conservation: The ICMS Ecológico in Brazil." IIED Catalogue.

Grieg-Gran, M. and J. Bishop (2004). "How can Markets for Ecosystem Services Benefit the Poor?"

Grieg-Gran, M., I. Porras, et al. (2005). "How can market mechanisms for forest environmental services help the poor? Preliminary lessons from Latin America." World Development 33(9): 1511-1527.

Grote, U., E. Craswell, et al. (2005). "Nutrient flows in international trade: Ecology and policy issues." Environmental Science & Policy 8(5): 439-451.

Impacts of increasing population pressure on food demand and land resources has sparked interest in nutrient balances and flows at a range of scales. West Asia/North Africa, China, and sub-Saharan Africa are net importers of NPK in agricultural commodities. These imported nutrients do not, however, redress the widely recognized declines in fertility in sub-Saharan African soils, because the nutrients imported are commonly concentrated in the cities, creating waste disposal problems rather than alleviating deficiencies in rural soils. Countries with a net loss of NPK in agricultural commodities are the major food exporting countries--the United States, Australia, and some Latin American countries. In the case of the United States, exports of NPK will increase from 3.1 Tg in 1997 to 4.8 Tg in 2020. The results suggest that between 1997 and 2020, total international net flows of NPK in traded agricultural commodities will double to 8.8 million tonnes. Against this background, the paper analyses the impact of different policy measures on nutrient flows and balances. This includes not only the effects of agricultural trade liberalization and the reduction of subsidies, but also the more direct environmental policies like nutrient accounting schemes, eco-labeling, and nutrient trading. It finally stresses the need for environmental costs to be factored into the debate on nutrient management and advocates more inter-disciplinary research on these important problems.

Gullison, R. E. and E. C. Losos (1993). "The Role of Foreign Debt in Deforestation in Latin-America." Conservation Biology 7(1): 140-147.

Guo, Z. W., X. M. Xiao, et al. (2000). "An assessment of ecosystem services: Water flow regulation and hydroelectric power production." Ecological Applications 10(3): 925-936.

Gupta, A. K. (2002). "Value addition to local Kani tribal Knowledge: patenting, licensing and benefit-sharing." Ecosystem Marketplace.

Gustafsson, B. (1998). "Scope and limits of the market mechanism in environmental management." Ecological Economics 24(2-3): 259-274.

Gutman, P. (2007). "Ecosystem services: Foundations for a new rural-urban compact." Ecological Economics 62(3-4): 383-387.

Gutman, P., M. Grieg-Gran, et al. (2003). "From Goodwill to Payments for Environmental Services

A Survey of Financing Options for Sustainable Resource Managment in Developing Countries." WWF.

Gutrich, J., D. Donovan, et al. (2005). "Science in the public process of ecosystem management: lessons from Hawaii, Southeast Asia, Africa and the US Mainland." Journal of Environmental Management 76(3): 197-209.

Partnerships and co-operative environmental management are increasing worldwide as is the call for scientific input in the public process of ecosystem management. In Hawaii, private landowners, non-governmental organizations, and state and federal agencies have formed watershed partnerships to conserve and better manage upland forested watersheds. In this paper, findings of an international workshop convened in Hawaii to explore the strengths of approaches used to assess stakeholder values of environmental resources and foster consensus in the public process of ecosystem management are presented. Authors draw upon field experience in projects throughout Hawaii, Southeast Asia, Africa and the US mainland to derive a set of lessons learned that can be applied to Hawaiian and other watershed partnerships in an effort to promote consensus and sustainable ecosystem management. Interdisciplinary science-based models can serve as effective tools to identify areas of potential consensus in the process of ecosystem management. Effective integration of scientific input in co-operative ecosystem management depends on the role of science, the stakeholders and decision-makers involved, and the common language utilized to compare tradeoffs. Trust is essential to consensus building and the integration of scientific input must be transparent and inclusive of public feedback. Consideration of all relevant stakeholders and the actual benefits and costs of management activities to each stakeholder is essential. Perceptions and intuitive responses of people can be as influential as analytical processes in decision-making and must be addressed. Deliberative, dynamic and iterative decision-making processes all influence the level of stakeholder achievement of consensus. In Hawaii, application of lessons learned can promote more informed and democratic decision processes, quality scientific analysis that is relevant, and legitimacy and public acceptance of ecosystem management.

Hanley, N., R. Faichney, et al. (1998). "Economic and environmental modelling for pollution control in an estuary." Journal of Environmental Management 52(3): 211-225.

This paper reports on results from an environmental-economic modelling exercise aimed at quantifying the potential cost savings from a Tradable Pollution Permits (TPPs) scheme in the Forth Estuary, Scotland. Such a scheme might be introduced to control inputs of biological oxygen demand more cheaply than the current regulatory system. A `MIKE 11' water-quality model is combined with step-wise integer and linear programming models representing firms' abatement costs. Cost savings under a deterministic scenario are compared with savings under a stochastic scenario, where transfer coefficients, relating discharges to ambient water quality, are allowed to vary. Potential cost savings appear to exist in both cases, although these cost savings are less in the stochastic case. The paper concludes by considering potential barriers to any real-life TPP market actually achieving these potential cost savings.

Harrop, S. R. (2007). "Traditional agricultural landscapes as protected areas in international law and policy." Agriculture Ecosystems & Environment 121(3): 296-307.

Hartmann, J., KfW, et al. "'Marketing' Environmental Services: Lessons Learned in German Development Cooperation." Instituto Nacional de Ecología.

Harvey, L. D. D. (1995). "Creating a global warming implementation regime." Global Environmental Change 5(5): 415-432.

This paper proposes a global warming implementation regime which addresses the issues of equity, flexibility, cost minimization, and population growth. Previously proposed international policy instruments, such as country by country targets, carbon taxes, and tradable permits, face major difficulties as stand alone proposals. The key element of the regime proposed here is to combine annual tradable permits which are allocated based on population in a fixed year with a small carbon tax ($5-10/tonne) on emissions in excess of permits. Both permits and carbon taxes are applied to national level governments, which in turn would use whatever mix of policies desired to reduce national emissions. It is suggested that the initial number of permits correspond to total global emissions in the base year; over time, the number of permits could be reduced and the tax rate increased if improved scientific knowledge so dictates. By allocating permits based on population the equity concerns of developing countries are addressed, while taxing emissions in excess of permit holdings removes the rigidity of a quota system and limits resource transfers by effectively capping the permit trading price, which is a major concern of industrialized countries. To accommodate the difficulties of countries which have not yet achieved the demographic transition, the permit allocation scheme could be subject to a one-time adjustment after 10-15 years based on some weighting of the initial and then-current populations. The proposed scheme is based on the premise that there is a large potential for reducing emissions in developed countries or limiting emission increases in developing countries, and the intention is to create competition between national level governments in implementing cost-effective emission reduction.

Hayes, T. M. (2006). "Parks, people, and forest protection: An institutional assessment of the effectiveness of protected areas." World Development 34(12): 2064-2075.

Hayward, J. and I. Vertinsky (1999). "High expectations, unexpected benefits - What managers and owners think of certification." Journal of Forestry 97(2): 13-17.

Hazell, P., C. Pomareda, et al. (1986). "Crop Insurance for Agricultural Development." The John Hopkins University Press.

Hazell, P. B. R. (1999). "The impact of agricultural research on the poor: a review of the state of knowledge." CIAT International Workshop.

Heal, G. (2000). "Nature and the Marketplace: Capturing the Value of Ecosystem Services." Island Press, Covelo, California, and Washington, D.C. 218pp. ISBN 1-55963-796-X.

Heiman, M. K. and B. D. Solomon (2004). "Power to the people: Electric utility restructuring and the commitment to renewable energy." Annals of the Association of American Geographers 94(1): 94-116.

Hengsdijk, H., W. Guanghuo, et al. (2007). "Poverty and biodiversity trade-offs in rural development: A case study for Pujiang county, China." Agricultural Systems 94(3): 851-861.

Hens, L. (2006). "Indigenous knowledge and biodiversity conservation and managment in Ghana." Human Ecology 20: 21-30.

Hodge, I. (2001). "Beyond agri-environmental policy: towards an alternative model of rural environmental governance." Land Use Policy 18(2): 99-111.

Holst, J., K. Peter, et al. (1997). "Finance for Sustainable Development: The Road Ahead."

Homewood, K. M. (2004). "Policy, environment and development in African rangelands." Environmental Science & Policy 7(3): 125-143.

Horan, R. D. and F. Lupi (2005). "Tradeable risk permits to prevent future introductions of invasive alien species into the Great Lakes." Ecological Economics 52(3): 289-304.

Commercial shipping has been implicated in over 60% of new introductions of invasive alien species (IAS) in the Great Lakes since 1960, with ballast water being the primary pathway. Recent policies have shifted the focus from postinvasion controls to prevention, with the regulation of oceanic ballast exchange as the primary approach. But this approach is not very effective, and it is often unsafe. We investigate whether an IAS tradeable permit program could provide an efficient alternative, keeping in mind that: (1) not every vessel will actually emit a species, yet ex ante each vessel is a potential emitter; (2) biological emissions are highly stochastic and essentially unobservable given current monitoring technologies. Theoretical issues in the design of a trading program are considered. We then compare the cost-effectiveness of trading versus command and control to reduce the likelihood of invasion by three classes of Ponto-Caspian species that are considered potential invaders capable of causing economic damage in the Great Lakes.

Horne, P., P. C. Boxall, et al. (2005). "Multiple-use management of forest recreation sites: a spatially explicit choice experiment." Forest Ecology and Management 207(1-2): 189-199.

This study examined visitors' preferences for forest management at five adjacent municipal recreation sites in Finland, using a spatially explicit choice experiment. The study design accounted for changes in scenery and biodiversity indices in the forest environment resulting from forest management practices. Respondents were asked to choose their preferred management option from alternative management regimes for the sites. The options were characterized by different levels of attributes, which included site-specific species richness levels and forest scenery, costs of management, and indicators of species richness levels over the system of recreation sites. Results show that visitors have a strong preference for the preservation of species richness and for scenic beauty. However, when there is a trade-off between these benefits, visitors chose their favourite scenery at their favourite recreation site and prefer management options, which preserve biodiversity at the other sites in the recreation system. The study shows how modelling the sites as independent units of the forest management regime permit policy-relevant conclusions to be drawn regarding the specialisation and zoning of multiple-use objectives. The approach also allows for the development of hypothetical management scenarios and estimation of respective economic welfare changes for visitors from these scenarios.

Humphries, S. S. and K. A. Kainer (2006). "Local perceptions of forest certification for community-based enterprises." Forest Ecology and Management 235(1-3): 30-43.

Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certification has been promoted as a way to encourage and recognize community-based forest enterprises (CFEs). However, certification has proved more difficult for CFEs than expected, and few certified operations have achieved the highly anticipated market benefits of certification. This has led to questioning of the compatibility of certification with CFEs, though few studies have directly asked local CFE actors their perceptions on this issue. This study investigates perceptions of certification for two CFEs in Brazil's western Amazon. The specific objectives of this study were (1) to determine the positive and negative aspects of certification as perceived by community members, their principal support organizations, and other key stakeholders, (2) to identify the relative importance of these perceived positive and negative aspects, and (3) to analyze the differences in perceptions between actors. Data were collected through structured interviews and a review of pertinent documents. Overall, the most positive aspects were economic and social, and the most negative aspects concerned the certification process and, to a lesser extent, the associated economic expenditures. Community members typically scored the positive aspects higher and the negative aspects lower than the support organizations. This is likely due to differences in roles and vantage points of these actors. In general, informants agreed that positive aspects of certification outweighed negative ones. This stands in contrast to some communities in other parts of Latin America that are contemplating dropping certification. Two particular conditions may have enabled operations in this study to overcome common constraints for CFEs: (1) membership in a regional producers group, and (2) strong political, technical, and financial support from the state government. Their experiences specifically highlight the need to adapt the certification process for CFEs and demonstrate that obtaining market benefits is possible.

Hung, M.-F. and D. Shaw (2005). "A trading-ratio system for trading water pollution discharge permits." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 49(1): 83-102.

The fact that water flows to the lowest level uni-directionally is a very specific and useful property of water. By utilizing this property, we design a trading-ratio system (TRS) of tradable discharge permits for water pollution control. Such a trading-ratio system has three main characteristics: (1) the zonal effluent cap is set by taking into account the water pollutant loads transferred from the upstream zones; (2) the trading ratios are set equal to the exogenous transfer coefficients among zones; and (3) permits are freely tradable among dischargers according to the trading ratios. This paper shows that the TRS can take care of the location effect of a discharge and can achieve the predetermined standards of environmental quality at minimum aggregate abatement costs. Problems with hot spots and free riding can be avoided, and the burdens on both dischargers and the environmental authority should be relatively light.

Huston, M. A. and G. Marland (2003). "Carbon management and biodiversity." Journal of Environmental Management 67(1): 77-86.

International efforts to mitigate human-caused changes in the Earth's climate are considering a system of incentives (debits and credits) that would encourage specific changes in land use that can help to reduce the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide. The two primary land-based activities that would help to minimize atmospheric carbon dioxide are carbon storage in the terrestrial biosphere and the efficient substitution of biomass fuels and bio-based products for fossil fuels and energy-intensive products. These two activities have very different land requirements and different implications for the preservation of biodiversity and the maintenance of other ecosystem services. Carbon sequestration in living forests can be pursued on lands with low productivity, i.e. on lands that are least suitable for agriculture or intensive forestry, and are compatible with the preservation of biodiversity over large areas. In contrast, intensive harvest-and-use systems for biomass fuels and products generally need more productive land to be economically viable. Intensive harvest-and-use systems may compete with agriculture or they may shift intensive land uses onto the less productive lands that currently harbor most of the Earth's biodiversity. Win-win solutions for carbon dioxide control and biodiversity are possible, but careful evaluation and planning are needed to avoid practices that reduce biodiversity with little net decrease in atmospheric carbon dioxide. Planning is more complex on a politically subdivided Earth where issues of local interest, national sovereignty, and equity come into play.

Ibarra, E. (2007). "The profitability of forest protection versus logging and the role of payments for environmental services (PES) in the Reserva Forestal Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica." Forest Policy and Economics In Press, Corrected Proof.

Ibarra, H. and J. Skees (2007). "Innovation in risk transfer for natural hazards impacting agriculture." Environmental Hazards 7(1): 62-69.

Iftikhar, U., M. Kallesoe, et al. (2007). "Exploring the inter-linkages among and between Compensation and Rewards for Ecosystem Services (CRES) and human well-being." World Agroforestry Centre 2007.

Immerzeel, W., J. Stoorvogel, et al. "Can payments for ecosystem services secure the water tower of Tibet?" Agricultural Systems In Press, Corrected Proof.

Innes, R., S. Polasky, et al. (1998). "Takings, Compensation and Endangered Species Protection on Private Lands." The Journal of Economic Perspectives 12(3): 35 - 52.

International, W., E. Ltd, et al. (2002). "2001 Analysis of Leakage, Baselines, and Carbon Benefits for the Noel Kempff Climate Action Project." Ecosystem Marketplace.

Jack, D. (1999). "La certificacion y el manejo forestal sostenible en Bolivia."

Jagger, P., J. Pender, et al. (2003). "Woodlot devolution in northern Ethiopia: Opportunities for empowerment, smallholder income diversification, and sustainable land managment." Environment and Production Technology Division, Discussion Paper No. 107.

Jarvie, M. and B. Solomon (1998). "Point-nonpoint effluent trading in watersheds: a review and critique." Environmental Impact Assessment Review 18(2): 135-157.

The 1990s have been characterized as the decade of market incentives in U.S. environmental policy-making. Not only is their use expanding for air pollution control, but the U.S Environmental Protection Agency is now also encouraging the use of market instruments for control of effluents within watersheds. After reviewing general guidelines and principles for effluent trading, this study considers the special problems of point-nonpoint (p-n) sources, the most common focus of effluent trading to date. Four case studies of p-n trading are discussed, which illustrate the promise of the policy. Although only two of these four case study programs have involved actual effluent trades thus far, they all have resulted in more cost-effective reductions of water pollution. Overall use of effluent trading to date has been modest, and suggestions are made for improvement of this innovative policy.

Jayaraman, R. and P. F. Lanjouw (2004). "Small-scale industry, environmental regulation, and poverty: The case of Brazil." World Bank Economic Review 18(3): 443-464.

Jayawickrama, K. J. S. (2001). "Potential genetic gains for carbon sequestration: a preliminary study on radiata pine plantations in New Zealand." Forest Ecology and Management 152(1-3): 313-322.

Preliminary estimates of gains in carbon sequestration, obtainable by applying genetic improvement, were calculated for radiata pine plantations in New Zealand. Data on height, diameter and wood density from New Zealand progeny trials were used to estimate family-mean heritability (hF2) and the phenotypic variance of half-sib family means for stem dry-weight production. Estimates of hF2 ranged from 0.15 to 0.59 for the different trials. Based on unweighted averages of these genetic parameter estimates, the predicted gain for selecting the best 50 of 500 parents for dry-weight production, and the best 10 of 1000 parents, and making crosses between these parents, was 14.6 and 22.2%, respectively. The amount of carbon sequestered in the stem, branches and roots of typical stands of unimproved radiata pine was simulated using the C_Change option in the stand growth simulator stand treatment and growth simulation (STANDPAK). The amounts of carbon sequestered at the end of a rotation, and the long-term average (carbon held on site by growing radiata pine over successive rotations) were estimated. Carbon sequestered under a standard (`direct sawlog') management regime would differ among regions, from 211.2 tonnes at the end of a 28-year rotation in Canterbury to 322.3 tonnes on the East Coast. A `plant-and-leave' low-cost regime sequestered more carbon than the direct sawlog regime with long-term averages at Kaingaroa of 102.9 tonnes carbon per ha and 85.3 tonnes per ha, respectively. The highest simulated genetic gain in long-term carbon sequestration for the standard regime was 29.3 tonnes per ha, for a stand grown in the East Coast region, using seed from the best 10 of 1000 ranked parents. Based on the highest estimated rate of carbon sequestration (East Coast, best 10 of 1000), and a value of 20 NZ$ per tonnes of carbon, the extra carbon credits attributable to genetic improvement, under the direct sawlog regime, would be worth 307 NZ$ per ha; the corresponding figure for the Canterbury region would be 151 NZ$ per ha. Owners of large post-1990 radiata pine plantings on converted farmland or pasture could gain large financial benefits attributable to genetic improvement, if trade in carbon credits becomes established. Assumptions for this study included extrapolating genetic parameter estimates to rotation age, and a similar allocation of biomass (to stem, branches and roots) for both genetically improved and unimproved radiata pine. Now that the potential has been established, more definitive estimates of genetic parameters, and better understanding of the effect of genetic improvement on carbon dynamics, are indicated.

Jégart, H. and J. A. Pérez Roas (2005). "Consevacíon de la Biodiversidad en el paisaje productivo la Cordillera de Mérida."

Jim, C. Y. and W. Y. Chen (2006). "Recreation-amenity use and contingent valuation of urban greenspaces in Guangzhou, China." Landscape and Urban Planning 75(1-2): 81-96.

Johnson, N. L. and M. E. Baltodano (2004). "The economics of community watershed management: some evidence from Nicaragua." Ecological Economics 49(1): 57-71.

Johnstone, N. and J. R. R. Alavalapati (1998). "The distributional effects of environmental tax reform." IIED Catalogue.

Jones, S. (2007). "Tigers, trees and Tharu: An analysis of community forestry in the buffer zone of the Royal Chitwan National Park, Nepal." Geoforum 38(3): 558-575.

Kahn, J. R. and J. A. McDonald (1995). "Third-World Debt and Tropical Deforestation." Ecological Economics 12(2): 107-123.

Kane, M., J. D. Erickson, et al. (2007). Urban Metabolism and Payment for Ecosystem Services: History and Policy Analysis of the New York City Water Supply. Advances in the Economics of Environmental Resources, JAI. Volume 7: 307-328.

The interaction of urban cores and their rural hinterlands is considered from an ecological-economic perspective. The concept of `urban metabolism' motivates discussion of urban dependence on geographic regions outside their borders for both sources of inputs and as waste sinks. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's 1989 Surface-Water Treatment Rule forces cities to consider the ecosystem services preserved by appropriate land-use management inside suburban and rural watersheds used for urban water supplies. A case study of New York City and its water supply from the Catskill-Delaware watershed system is used to explore these themes. Compensation from the city to watershed communities may be an effective way to motivate protection of those ecosystem functions. Both direct payments and investment in economic development projects consistent with water quality goals are reviewed as policy instruments.

Kashaigili, J. J., R. M. J. Kadigi, et al. (2003). "Constraints and potential for efficient inter-sectoral water allocations in Tanzania." Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C 28(20-27): 839-851.

In many sub-Saharan African countries, there are conflicts over water uses in most river basins. In Tanzania, conflicts are becoming alarming and are exacerbated by increasing water demands due to rapid population growth and expanding economic activities. This paper reviews the major constraints and potential for achieving efficient systems of allocating water resources to different uses and users in Tanzania. The following constraints are identified: (a) the lack of active community involvement in management of water resources, (b) conflicting institutions and weak institutional capacities both in terms of regulations and protection of interests of the poor, (c) the lack of data and information to inform policy and strategies for balanced water allocation, and (d) inadequate funds for operation, maintenance and expansion of water supply systems. Despite these constraints, there are also opportunities for improving water allocation and management systems in the country. These include: the available reserve of both surface and groundwater resources, which remain unexploited; high demand for water services; a high potential for investing in the water sector; and availability of basic infrastructure and elements of institutional framework that can be improved. The paper recommends the use of combined variants of water allocation devices which (a) meet different water requirements and ensure desirable multiple-use outcomes, (b) facilitate the classification of water resources in terms of desired environmental protection levels, (c) allow reforms in water utilization to achieve equity and meet changing social and economic priorities, (d) facilitate the development of effective local institutions, (e) put in place the legal system that assigns rights to water resources and describes how those rights may be transferred, (f) enforce the rights and punish infringements on those rights, and (g) use cost-effective pricing systems to ensure that payment for water uses cover development, operational and management costs.

Kaye, S. (2004). "Implementing high seas biodiversity conservation: global geopolitical considerations." Marine Policy 28(3): 221-226.

This article will consider the broad geopolitical considerations in measures towards biodiversity conservation and governance of high seas areas. Traditionally, international law has provided for jurisdiction based upon flag State in high seas areas, and States have shown themselves reluctant to depart from this model. International organisations with responsibility for high seas living resource management have proven, in many cases, to be of limited utility in the sustainable management of high seas resources. This traditional norm of flag State jurisdiction, while still dominant, is now being joined by the use of supra-national management in the context of regional fisheries organisations under the United Nations Fish Stocks Agreement. Part of the reason for this limited effectiveness is the focus of individual States on national interest, which may undermine international cooperation. The paper explores what mechanisms exist within international law that would permit a more effective management of high seas biodiversity conservation, and how these may be used to combat the erosion of the effectiveness of measures by individual State interests. Recognition of geopolitical factors that undermine cooperation in biodiversity conservation, and active efforts to address these matters, will prove essential in the establishment of a successful regime for high seas areas.

Kelsey Jack, B., C. Kousky, et al. (2007). "Lessons Relearned: Can Previous Research on Incentive-Based Mechanisms Point the Way for Payments for Ecosystem Services?"

Kennett, R., C. J. Robinson, et al. (2004). "Indigenous initiatives for co-managment of Miyapunu/Sea Turtle." Ecological Managment & Restoration 5: 159-166.

Kenyon, W. and C. Nevin (2001). "The use of economic and participatory approaches to assess forest development: a case study in the Ettrick Valley." Forest Policy and Economics 3(1-2): 69-80.

The forest floodplain restoration project in the Ettrick Valley in the Borders Region of Scotland is a nationally important project which aims to expand and create forest floodplain habitats along the Upper Ettrick. The project aims to enhance existing habitats and wildlife whilst ensuring a partnership approach is maintained with the local community. The paper evaluates the project's success in achieving these aims, using two distinct approaches. The first, an economic approach uses the contingent valuation method to estimate the total economic value of the site. Results show that the mean willingness to contribute to this project on a one-off basis, was [pound sign]10.39 per household. Aggregated over the Borders population, these results suggest that the project has a minimum value of approximately [pound sign]450 000, as compared with an estimated cost of [pound sign]350 000. The second approach uses participatory methodology -- a Citizens' Jury. A Citizens' Jury consists of a small group of people, selected to represent the general public, who meet to deliberate upon a policy question. The Jury met to assess the project and to provide qualitative information on its value and importance to the local community. The Citizens' Jury approved of the project, and although they did not place a monetary value upon it, they indicated that they valued the role it played in preserving the natural ecosystem, encouraging wildlife and educating the young. However, they were concerned about visitor access and the future management of the site.

Kerr, J. (2002). "Watershed development, environmental services, and poverty alleviation in India." World Development 30(8): 1387-1400.

Kessler, J. J., T. Rood, et al. (2007). "Biodiversity and Socioeconomic Impacts of Selected Agro-Commodity Production Systems." The Journal of Environment Development 16(2): 131-160.

This study assesses the socioeconomic and biodiversity impacts associated with the production of selected agro-commodities in their production countries and areas. Selected agro-commodities are soy (in Argentina and Brazil), palm oil (in Indonesia and Malaysia), beef (in Argentina and Brazil), and coffee (in Honduras and Vietnam). In each of the countries specific production areas and regions were selected, where production of the agro-commodity has shown strong expansion during the last 5 to 8 years. Using data and information on biodiversity and socioeconomic indicators available at the subnational level, a loss of biodiversity as well as a decline of critical socioeconomic indicators was observed in 54% of the studied production areas. Because in the mid-1990s several production areas had lower values for important socioeconomic indicators compared to the national average, a widening of the gap between the socioeconomic situation in production areas as compared to the national average was found in 26% of the cases studied. This corresponds to 59% of areas with a poor initial development situation. We found that factors explaining these patterns are characteristics of the commodities, macroeconomic and governance issues of the countries, as well as the history of the production area and whether production increase occurs through frontier expansion or intensification. Overall these results contradict the neoliberal assumption that export-oriented development will generally stimulate economic growth and reduce poverty in the production areas.

Kgathi, D. L., D. Kniveton, et al. (2006). "The Okavango; a river supporting its people, environment and economic development." Journal of Hydrology 331(1-2): 3-17.

Kilian, B., C. Jones, et al. (2006). "Is sustainable agriculture a viable strategy to improve farm income in Central America? A case study on coffee." Journal of Business Research 59(3): 322-330.

In order to alleviate the impacts of the low coffee prices in recent years, sustainable coffee production and certification have been a logical strategy for many producers to: a) differentiate their product in the market place; and, b) shift their production cost structure away from more input intensive techniques. This paper explores the two most widely recognized certification schemes (organic and "fairtrade") to determine whether certification to these systems is actually benefiting producers. It then explores the principal differences in production costs and price premiums for the two systems and their effect on different categories of producers. Finally, it considers the dynamics of the conventional and sustainable coffee markets to assess the likely medium to long-term economic outlook for producers involved in the certification schemes. The research is based on a combination of published sources and detailed primary source data (interviews and surveys) gathered by the CIMS Foundation.

Kimaru, G. and B. Jama (2006). "Improving land managment in eastern and southern Africa." World Agroforestry Centre 2006.

Kirby, K. J. (2003). "Woodland conservation in privately-owned cultural landscapes: the English experience." Environmental Science & Policy 6(3): 253-259.

Kissel, J. M. and S. C. W. Krauter (2006). "Adaptations of renewable energy policies to unstable macroeconomic situations - Case study: Wind power in Brazil." Energy Policy 34(18): 3591-3598.

Kline, J. D., R. J. Alig, et al. (2000). "Forest owner incentives to protect riparian habitat." Ecological Economics 33(1): 29-43.

Private landowners increasingly are asked to cooperate with landscape-level management to protect or enhance ecological resources. We examine the willingness of nonindustrial private forest owners in the Pacific Northwest (USA) to forego harvesting within riparian areas to improve riparian habitat. An empirical model is developed describing owners' willingness to accept an economic incentive to adopt a 200-foot harvest buffer along streams as a function of their forest ownership objectives and socioeconomic characteristics. Results suggest that owners' willingness to forego harvest varies by their forest ownership objectives. Mean incentive payments necessary to induce owners to forego harvest in riparian areas are higher for owners possessing primarily timber objectives ($128-137/acre/year) than for owners possessing both timber and nontimber objectives ($54-69/acre/year) or primarily recreation objectives ($38-57/acre/year).

Knutsson, D., S. Werner, et al. (2006). "Combined heat and power in the Swedish district heating sector--impact of green certificates and CO2 trading on new investments." Energy Policy 34(18): 3942-3952.

Combined heat and power (CHP) has been identified by the EU administration as an important means of reducing CO2-emissions and increasing the energy efficiency. In Sweden, only about one third of the demand for district heat (DH) is supplied from CHP. This share could be significantly larger if the profitability of CHP generation increased. The objective of this study was to analyse the extent to which the profitability for investments in new CHP plants in the Swedish DH sector have changed thanks to the recently implemented trading schemes for green certificates (TGCs) and CO2 emissions (TEPs). The analysis was carried out using a simulation model of the Swedish DH sector in which the profitability of CHP investments for all DH systems, with and without the two trading schemes applied, is compared. In addition, a comparison was made of the changes in CHP generation, CO2 emissions, and operation costs if investments are made in the CHP plant shown to be most profitable in each system according to the model. The study shows that the profitability of investments in CHP plants increased significantly with the introductions of TGC and TEP schemes. If all DH utilities also undertook their most profitable CHP investments, the results indicate a major increase in power generation which, in turn, would reduce the CO2 emissions from the European power sector by up to 13 Mton/year, assuming that coal condensing power is displaced.

Knutsson, D., S. Werner, et al. (2006). "Short-term impact of green certificates and CO2 emissions trading in the Swedish district heating sector." Applied Energy 83(12): 1368-1383.

Swedish district-heating (DH) systems use a wide range of energy sources and technologies for heat-and-power generation. This provides the DH utilities with major flexibility in changing their fuel and technology mix when the economic conditions for generation change. Two recently introduced policy instruments have changed the DH utilities' costs for generation considerably; the tradable green-certificate (TGC) scheme introduced in 2003 in Sweden, and the tradable greenhouse-gas emission permit (TEP) scheme introduced in the EU on January 1, 2005. The objective of this study is to analyse how these two trading schemes impact on the operation of the Swedish DH sector in terms of changes in CHP generation, CO2 emissions, and operating costs. The analysis was carried out by comparing the most cost-effective operation for the DH utilities, with and without, the two trading schemes applied, using a model that handles the Swedish DH-sector system-by-system. It was found that the volume of renewable power generated in CHP plants only increased slightly owing to the TGC scheme. The TGC and the TEP schemes in force together, however, nearly doubled the renewable power-generation. CO2 emissions from the DH sector may either increase or decrease depending on the combination of TGC and TEP prices. The overall CO2 emissions from the European power-generation sector would, however, be reduced for all price combinations assuming that increased Swedish CHP generation replaces coal-condensing power (coal-fired plants with power generation only) in other European countries. The trading schemes also lower the operational costs of the DH sector since the cost increase owing to the use of more expensive fuels and the purchase of TEPs is outweighed by the increased revenues from sales of electricity and TGCs.

Kobayashi, S. (2004). "Landscape rehabilitation of degraded tropical forest ecosystems: Case study of the CIFOR/Japan project in Indonesia and Peru." Forest Ecology and Management 201(1): 13-22.

Kollert, W. and P. Lagan (2007). "Do certified tropical logs fetch a market premium?: A comparative price analysis from Sabah, Malaysia." Forest Policy and Economics 9(7): 862-868.

The controversy about the benefits of certification to timber producers has centered on the "market premium" and "market access" arguments. Some studies claim evidence that consumers are willing to pay a market premium between 2% and 30% for sustainably produced, certified timber products. Others doubt or flatly deny this notion. Most of these studies are based on willingness-to-pay surveys of consumer demand leaving aside the crucial question whether or not the producers of certified logs, which bear the costs of forest certification, obtain a financial reward for their efforts. The paper contributes quantitative evidence to the on-going debate. Time series of prices of certified and uncertified logs (2000 to 2004) provided by three forest management units from Sabah, Malaysia, were examined in a comparative analysis (ANOVA) of 6 species groups. The results suggest that forest management certification achieves a market premium for certified logs. In particular high quality hardwoods (e.g. Selangan Batu, Keruing) destined for the export market fetch a price premium of 27% to 56%. Lower quality timbers (e.g. Kapur, Seraya) also fetch a price premium, however the difference is less pronounced (2% to 30%).

Konyar, K. and R. E. Howitt (2000). "The cost of the Kyoto Protocol to US crop production: Measuring crop price, regional acreage, welfare, and input substitution effects." Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics 25(2): 347-367.

Koonce, J. F., V. Cairns, et al. (1996). "A commentary on the role of institutional arrangements in the protection and restoration of habitat in the Great Lakes." Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 53: 458-465.

Koop, G. and L. Tole (2001). "Deforestation, distribution and development." Global Environmental Change 11(3): 193-202.

This paper investigates the role played by distributional factors in mediating the effects of growth and development on forest depletion in tropical developing countries. A key finding of the paper is that the distributional profile of a country significantly determines whether economic development will have either a positive or a negative effect on the rate of forest loss. In countries where levels of inequality are high, development will tend to exacerbate deforestation rates while in countries where distributional profiles are more egalitarian, the negative effects of growth and development on forest cover will be ameliorated.

Korfmacher, K. S. and T. M. Koontz (2003). "Collaboration, information, and preservation: The role of expertise in farmland preservation task forces." Policy Sciences 36(3-4): 213-236.

Kosoy, N., M. Martinez Tuna, et al. (2005). "Payments for Environmental Services in Watersheds: Insights from a comparative Study of two Cases in Central America."

Kosoy, N., M. Martinez-Tuna, et al. (2007). "Payments for environmental services in watersheds: Insights from a comparative study of three cases in Central America." Ecological Economics 61(2-3): 446-455.

We have compared three cases of payments for water-related environmental services (PES) in Central America, in terms of socioeconomic background, opportunity costs of forest conservation and stakeholders' perceptions of the conditions of water resources and other issues. We found that, in general, the opportunity costs are larger than the amounts paid, which apparently contradicts the economic foundation of PES schemes and suggests that the role of "intangibles" is important in inducing participation. The results also show that trade-offs between different environmental and social goals are likely to emerge in PES schemes, posing some doubts as to their ability to be multipurpose instruments for environmental improvement and rural development. We also found that PES schemes may work as a conflict-resolution instrument, facilitating downstream-upstream problem solving, though at the same time they might introduce changes in social perceptions of property rights.

Kotchen, M. J., M. R. Moore, et al. (2006). "Environmental constraints on hydropower: An ex post benefit-cost analysis of dam relicensing in Michigan." Land Economics 82(3): 384-403.

Krause, F., S. J. Decanio, et al. (2002). "Cutting carbon emissions at a profit (part I): Opportunities for the United States." Contemporary Economic Policy 20(4): 339-365.

Kroeger, T. and F. Casey "An assessment of market-based approaches to providing ecosystem services on agricultural lands." Ecological Economics In Press, Corrected Proof.

Market-based approaches are increasingly being advocated as tools for achieving the conservation of ecosystem services. We examine the reasons why markets so far appear to have failed to provide an efficient allocation of many ecosystem services, and identify the conditions under which markets deliver efficient resource allocation. We discuss different forms of market-based approaches to ecosystem services and identify the characteristics of services that make them better suited to one or another of these approaches. We find that lack of low-cost measurability and valuation currently precludes efficient allocation of many ecosystem services through market-based approaches. Still, some forms of market-based approaches hold promise for cost-effectively managing some ecosystem services provided by and to agricultural lands. In many cases some form of well-designed government involvement will be required to seek outcomes that protect the public interest.

Kuijper, M. W. M. (2003). "Marine and coastal environmental awareness building within the context of UNESCO's activities in Asia and the Pacific." Marine Pollution Bulletin 47(1-6): 265-272.

Kuik, O. and M. Mulder (2004). "Emissions trading and competitiveness: pros and cons of relative and absolute schemes." Energy Policy 32(6): 737-745.

Emissions trading is a hot issue. At national as well as supranational levels, proposals for introduction of emissions trading schemes have been made. This paper assesses alternative emissions trading schemes at domestic level: (1) schemes where the total level of emissions is fixed (absolute cap-and-trade), (2) schemes where the allowable level of emissions per firm is related to some firm-specific indicator (relative cap-and-trade), and (3) mixed schemes which combine elements of the above alternatives. We present a quantitative assessment of these alternatives for climate change policy in the Netherlands. It is concluded that while relative cap-and-trade would avoid negative effects on competitiveness, it would not reduce emissions at the lowest costs. Besides, the addition of a trade system to existing relative standards does not result in additional emission reduction; it should be combined with other policy measures, such as energy taxes, in order to realise further reduction. Absolute cap-and-trade leads to efficient emissions reduction, but, implemented at the national level, its overall macroeconomic costs may be significant. The mixed scheme has as drawback that it treats firms unequal, which leads to high administrative costs. We conclude that none of the trading schemes is an advisable instrument for domestic climate policy.

Lambert, A. (2000). "Gerenciamento ambiental na região Amazonicâ: Por que não tentar os instrumentos voltados ao mercado?"

Landell Mills, N. and I. Porras (2002). "Silver buller or fool's gold? A global review of markets for forest environmental services and their impact on the poor." IIED Catalogue.

Langholz, J., J. Lassoie, et al. (2000). "Incentives for biological Conservation: Costa Rica's Wildlife Refuge Program." Conservation Biology 14(6): 1735-1743.

Larson, A. M., P. Pacheco, et al. (2007). "The Effects of Forestry Decentralization on Access to Livelihood Assets." The Journal of Environment Development 16(3): 251-268.

Despite its argued theoretical benefits, forestry decentralization in practice can have detrimental effects on forest-dependent peoples, but little is understood about the specific paths by which decentralization affects livelihoods. This article, based on data from research in 2005 in Bolivia, Brazil, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua, presents a working conceptual model for analyzing these interactions. The research found that vulnerability increased when decentralization was not combined with policies addressing structural inequities-that is, increased municipal government control over land and forests must be accompanied by policies increasing poor local people's access rights and security. At the same time, increased municipal government authority over forest management and monitoring can facilitate access to these and other assets needed for forest livelihoods, but this new responsibility must also be accompanied by improved controls over local authorities. The needed changes rarely come about without specific organized demands of local actors' associations and movements.

Laurance, W. F. and C. Gascon (1997). "How to creatively fragment a landscape." Conservation Biology 11(2): 577-579.

Lautze, J. and M. Giordano (2007). "Demanding Supply Management and Supplying Demand Management: Transboundary Waters in Sub-Saharan Africa." The Journal of Environment Development 16(3): 290-306.

The emphasis of the world's transboundary water law has gradually shifted in the past half century from water resources development to water resources management and environmental protection. This change in institutional focus is a natural outcome of changing resource conditions, in particular the high levels of water resources development achieved in many regions as well as rising economic prosperity and associated changes in environmental perception. Surprisingly, this analysis reveals that transboundary water law in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) follows these global trends even though SSA's levels of water resources development, economic prosperity, and food security are significantly lower than any other region in the world. These findings suggest that the nature of SSA's transboundary water law may be largely "handed down" from other parts of the world with different realities than those present in SSA. Recognizing this relationship can provide important lessons for improving transboundary water governance in the region.

Lee, C.-K. and J. W. Mjelde (2007). "Valuation of ecotourism resources using a contingent valuation method: The case of the Korean DMZ." Ecological Economics 63(2-3): 511-520.

The Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), which has been untouched by human interference for the last half century, has become a sanctuary for rare species of animals and plants. Conflicts concerning development between communities and environmentalists are arising. Estimates of the preservation value of the DMZ are necessary for society to properly address these issues. Such estimates will help policy-makers address issues of conservation management, sustainable development, and public financial support. Given this situation, the objectives are two-fold. The primary objective of this study is to obtain estimates of the preservation value of the Korean DMZ and Civilian Control Zone (CCZ). A secondary objective is to examine the potential for hypothetic bias in respondents' answers in a contingent valuation method framework. Findings suggest hypothetical bias is present in the survey. Including a real payment vehicle may reduce hypothetical bias in eliciting willingness-to-pay (WTP). Best estimates are the mean WTP is US $ 16.74 per capita. Aggregate preservation value lies between US $264 and $602 million. These findings indicate that conservation of the DMZ and CCZ is not only important for moral and ecological reasons, but the DMZ and CCZ are of considerable economic value to South Koreans. Any development unfriendly to the environment will degrade the quality of the ecosystem of the DMZ, as well as, decrease its economic value.

Lehtonen, H., J. Peltola, et al. (2006). "Co-effects of climate policy and agricultural policy on regional agricultural viability in Finland." Agricultural Systems 88(2-3): 472-493.

The agricultural sector has potentially a significant role in reducing greenhouse gases (GHGs). Besides providing public goods, GHG reduction offers farmers new alternatives for income generation. This is especially interesting in marginal agricultural areas, e.g., in less-favoured areas (LFA) of the European Union (EU), where significant GHG reduction potential coincides with low productivity in the production of agricultural commodities. In this study, the effects of peatland cultivation restrictions were evaluated, where the objective was to decrease GHG fluxes deriving from agricultural production. The regional role of peatlands in GHG reduction and agricultural production is also evaluated. Ceasing the agricultural use of peatlands altogether could decrease Finnish agricultural sector carbon effluents by up to 10% according to a dynamic regional sector model of the Finnish agriculture (DREMFIA). Accompanying decreases in national and even in regional agricultural incomes do n